San Jose (California) ( United States ) Two Internet giants fight: Yahoo has sued Facebook. The lawyers accuse the minds behind the social network plagiarism, many techniques used were developed by Yahoo. But they are now calling for an undisclosed sum in damages yet. “Unfortunately, the matter remains unresolved with Facebook, and we are forced to seek reparations from the Federal Court,” did announce Yahoo. The prosecution is appropriate to the planned IPO of Facebook, which is expected this summer. Investors could be confused by the action.

The creators of Facebook have only learned through the media by the prosecution, said Jonathan Thaw, a spokesman for the social network. “We are disappointed that Yahoo, a long partner of Facebook and a company that has benefited greatly from the connection with Facebook, has decided to initiate a lawsuit.”

Specifically, it is in the dock by ten patents, including the sending of messages and the way of commentary, but also the display of advertising on Internet sites. “The entire network structure of Facebook, the users of the creation and connection of profiles with – among others – makes things, persons and companies, based on Yahoo’s patented social networking technology,” said the plaintiff. has more than 1,000 patents, Yahoo, Facebook, however, only 56th

With retroactive royalty payments for the allegedly illegal use of the patents will not be content to Yahoo. Facebook has thus also get a market share gains over Yahoo. The IPO of Google in 2004 Yahoo had also sued patents, Google had that time together, got 2.7 million shares of Yahoo search engine giant. Thanks to the subsequent public offering, the securities at that time about 230 million dollars.

A court in Tokyo has prompted the search engine Google to delete specific words in the “AutoComplete”. Reason: They violated the privacy of a Japanese man.

The man had sued Google after it had lost because of the words shown in the AutoComplete feature his job.

You typed the name of the Japanese into Google revealed the search engine in terms of this crime!

Background: Google, its users automatically suggests additional, possibly with search words, even as they type a search term. Example: Is it “football” a, Google also proposes “Live Stream”, “Live Ticker” and “Bundesliga” before.

Reason for Google’s suggestions for the Japanese was probably that he has the same name as a convicted criminal.

He himself could not explain any other context.

The consequences were clearly dramatic: He found a new job after the termination more. Probably because some potential new employers were shown Google’s suggestions.

The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers ( ICANN ) is a private non-profit organization of U.S. law, established in California City Marina del Rey .

Task

ICANN decides on the basis of the management of top-level domains , and thus ICANN coordinates the technical aspects of the Internet, but without the right to set binding. ICANN was under 30 September 2009 the Department of Commerce (Department of Commerce) of the United States and thus the U.S. government . Since October 1, 2009 and replaces a joint “declaration of binding agreements” (Affirmation of commitment) the previous agreement (Joint Project Agreement, JPA), which representatives of governments and interested stakeholders should regularly assess whether the ICANN organization to fulfill its responsibilities in accordance with statutory .

ICANN is sometimes used as a sort of world government of the Internet means. The governments of the world are in the Governmental Advisory Committee ( Governmental Advisory Committee , GAC) represented the independent seat at the EU Commission in Brussels has one. As the headquarters of the organization even after 1 2009 in the U.S. remains October, network management organization is subject to the continuing American jurisprudence.

Formation

ICANN was in October 1998 a coalition of various interest groups (business, technology, science and users) founded by. Legally, it is in ICANN is a private foundation based in Marina del Rey, California. The ICANN is responsible for a number of technical requirements, previously of the IANA and various other groups were taken, focusing on.

Objects of the work of ICANN

In order for the Internet, certain names and addresses are globally unique. Therefore, ICANN coordinates:

• on the Address Supporting Organization and the Country Code Names Supporting Organization (ccNSO), the Internet domain name ( domain name system , especially the DNS root name server )
• the IP addresses ,
• in cooperation with the IETF protocol parameters and port addresses of the Internet protocol suite .

Organization

The Board of Directors of ICANN is composed of 21 members from around the world. 15 members have voting rights: to be a night Nominierungskommittee elected, two by the Address Supporting Organization (ASO), two of the country-code Name Supporting Organization (ccNSO) and two of the Generic Name Supporting Organization (GNSO), which coincides CEO . Six non-voting members are nominated by advisory organizations. 2000 members, five representing the user base of a continent selected public, with the expiration of their time member of the 2003 public election, however, abolished.

Chairman of the board is Peter Dengate Thrush. President & CEO of ICANN since 2009 July is Rod Beckstrom, chief operating officer since September 2010 Akram Atallah. Board members were from Germany until 2003 Helmut Schink ( Siemens AG ) and the journalist Andy Mueller-Maguhn (Deputy Chairman of the Chaos Computer Club Berlin e. V.), the representative was elected as European. Another member from Germany until 2006 Hultzsch Hagen (a former board member of the German Telekom AG ). Karl Auerbach , the public representatives of the North American user base 2000 to 2003, sat down for more openness and transparency of ICANN for a. In 2002, he complained before a Superior Court in California successfully for access to the books.

Alternative root server

An alternative to the ICANN root servers to the OpenNIC Project is . To 31 December 2008 formed the Open Root Server Network (Ørsnes), which partially IPv6 was enabled, an alternative to the ICANN root servers

The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority ( IANA ) is an organization that the allocation of IP addresses , top-level domains and IP protocol numbers and the allocation of port controls. The forerunner of the IANA originally consisted of only one employee, Jon Postel .

IANA delegates the local registration of IP addresses to Regional Internet Registries (RIRs). Each RIR is a specific part of the world for, specifically:

• ARIN for North America
• RIPE for Europe
• APNIC for Asia and the Pacific region
• LACNIC for Latin America and the Caribbean
• AfriNIC for Africa

The IANA distributed IPv4 addresses in large blocks (typically / 8 in CIDR notation) to the RIRs , which will then by their own rules for the allocation of addresses to end customers (in this sense, providers or organizations, their IP addresses themselves manage distributed), in which case most / 19er-or / 20 blocks are allocated.

The IANA is also responsible for delegation and allocation of IPv6 addresses in charge, it has been easy here, but insofar as they contain large blocks to the RIRs and distributed very near future so that other delegations have made ​​unnecessary time on easy. The stock of delegated IPv6 addresses currently exceeds by several times the demand, since IPv6 slowly into production is the first place.

The IANA is organizationally a division of ICANN and is thus at least indirectly under the influence of the U.S. Department of Commerce .

The relationship between ICANN, the ccTLDs and RIRs can be seen as, at best, highly political, “described to be”, and since ICANN again tried again, the IANA to the registries to exert influence over, there were now several proposals to complete by ICANN to decouple IANA whether with or without the cooperation of the U.S. government.

The host name (including site name ) is the unique name of a computer in a network . It is predominantly the electronic data exchange (eg e-mail , Usenet , FTP ) is used to communication partners in a human-readable and noticeable specify the format. The reaction of the host name to a machine-readable address is on the web today, mainly via the Domain Name System (DNS) , historically the file / etc / hosts . In local networks, the reaction is carried out by some DNA , some still with NIS and other proprietary protocols. What names are technically allowed, governs in the case in the protocol used for name resolution – on the Internet so the Domain Name System .

Hostname as the name of a physical system

The host name of a physical system ( computers , host ) is the name under which the system itself knows and with which the system reports. Visible host name can be that when a computer system sends an email such as sender of status messages or bounce messages or if a user on a server logs. The host name can be UNIX-like systems with the command hostname and set to be read.

For computers that are directly on the Internet are available, is usually a Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN) hostname is used as, For computers, the only one LAN are reachable, is part of the domain part is omitted and only the local part is used (in this case mail ), as the domain of clear distinction in this case is not necessary to is.

The local part of the hostname of physical systems is often based on characters from literature and film (especially SciFi Comics), mythical beings or gods, or selected and depends on the intended use of the computer (eg, ns, mail, ftp, serv1, serv2, SERV3 etc.).

Hostname as the name of a network node

In the Domain Name System are AAAA Resource Records and A resource records entered, the name an IP address assigned. This name may or may not be the hostname, the host with that IP address out of. This may be possible that a host is reachable under different names.

Example:

On a host running a Web server serves multiple customers of the. The site is one of about beispiel1.de, that of the other accessible via beispiel2.de. Both names are from the same IP address in the Domain Name System database.

The full name of a network node is usually composed of a part that describes a service (such as www, mail, ftp, etc.) and a domain part. This practice, however, evolved over time, and makes sense only in case if these services are different from hosts provided. for the Domain Name System is no difference between domains and subdomains Since there is, can A resource records directly to the domain of entry.

Guidelines

Host Names are as all domain names from several “labels” which are separated by one point to each other. Each label must be 1-63 characters long, up to the domain name must include a total of 255 characters.

Unlike domain names, only hostnames in the ASCII characters AZ (upper and lower case does not matter), 0-9 and the hyphen - exist. The individual labels may not start or stop a hyphen. Other than the special characters dash (and the point between the labels) are not permitted, although they are still used occasionally. Underscores are often on Windows systems used, although according to RFC 952 are not allowed. Some systems, such as DomainKeys and the SRV resource record , use the underscore deliberately to ensure that their particular domains with host names not be mistaken. Because some systems check the validity of hostnames only problem is the use of invalid characters like the underscore out to various systems in the world are connected with the.

The host name de.wikipedia.org therefore consists of the DNS label de , wikipedia and org . Labels such as 2600 and 3Com may be used in hostnames, -hi, and hi * * are not valid, however.

History

• 20. September 1971

RFC 226 – Standardization of host mnemonics

6 characters to describe a host name, in the example are all uppercase letters and numbers used

• 22. September 1971

RFC 229 – Standard host names

8 characters for the description of a host name, in the example are all uppercase letters, numbers and hyphens used

• 5. October 1971

RFC 237 – NIC view of standard host names

At least 8 characters with regard to the use of up to 12 characters in the NIC

• 17. November 1971

RFC 280 – A Draft of Host Names

A first-draft list of hosts with hostname in the network

Be used up to 11 characters

• 21. December 1971

RFC 289 – What we hope is an official list of host names

The first official survey of hosts with hostname in the network

Be used up to 11 characters

• 12. December 1973

RFC 597 – Host status

An overview of hosts with hostname in the network

Be used up to 12 characters

• 10. January 1974

RFC 608 – Host names on-line

48 characters to describe a host name, consisting of capital letters, numbers and the hyphen

• 1. March 1982

RFC 810 – DoD Internet host table specification

24 characters to describe a host name, consisting of capital letters, numbers, the dash and a point

• October 1985

RFC 952 – DoD Internet host table specification

The point may only be used to separate each domain name

• October 1989

RFC 1123 – Requirements for Internet Hosts – Application and Support

Software for resolving host names must support up to 63 characters and should support up to 255 characters

A Fully-Qualified Host Name (short FQHN,) is a host name , either as a fully qualified name of a domain ( Fully Qualified Domain Name , FQDN is shown) or a numeric IP address of a computer. ^{[1 ]} The FQHN denotes a particular computer unique.

Is there such as a company with the domain “example.com” a subnet “administrative” and is in this one computer with the host name wks1 “then a FQHN the FQDN of this host” wks1.administration.example.com. . Another FQHN is the IP address of the computer, for example, ” 192.0.2.123 “.

The term FQHN is including in the two RFCs 1153 ( Digest Message Format 1990) and 2109 ( HTTP State Management Mechanism 1997) used. RFC 2109 has now been through the RFC 2965 ( HTTP State Management Mechanism 2000) replaced by, in the longer term appears not.

A name server is a server , the name resolution offers. Name resolution is the process that allows names of hosts or services in a computer-editable address dissolve

Most name servers are part of the Domain Name System , which is also in the Internet is used.

Name servers are programs on the one hand to answer questions about the domain name space, in the language are, however, the computers that run these programs, referred to as name servers. A distinction between authoritative and non-authoritative name servers.

An authoritative name server is responsible for a zone. His information about this area, therefore, are protected considered. Each zone is at least one authoritative server which primary name server. This is the SOA resource record of a zone file listed. For redundancy and load balancing reasons, authoritative name servers are almost always as a server – Cluster realized, the zone data on one or more secondary name servers are identical. The synchronization between primary and secondary name servers is via zone transfer .

A non-authoritative name server gets its information about a zone from other name servers as it were from second or third hand. His information is as secure not considered. Because DNS data is very rarely change usually save non-authoritative name server for the time of a resolver requested information in the local RAM on this new request for a so fast there. This is known as caching means. Each entry has its own expiration date ( TTL time to live ), the expiry of the cache entry is deleted after the. The TTL is it an authoritative name servers for this entry and will be determined by the change in probability of entry determined by the (frequently changing DNS data obtained a low TTL). This can possibly also mean that the name server time can provide false information in this if the data has changed in the meantime.

A special case is the Caching Only name server. In this case, the name server is responsible for any zone and must resolve all incoming requests for information about other name servers (forwarders). There are several different strategies:

Cooperation between the various name servers

This can find a non-authoritative name server information about other parts of the name space, he uses the following strategies:

Delegation

Part of the name space of a domain are often sub-domains then the name servers specifically removed from store. A name server of a domain name server knows the responsible for this subdomain’s zone file, and delegates requests to its child namespace to one of those name servers.

Forwarding (forwarding)

If the requested name space is outside its own domain, the request is forwarded to a specified name servers configured.

Resolution on the Root Server

no forwarding server configured, or is this not already answered, the root servers are consulted. To this end, in the form of a static file names and IP addresses of root servers stored the. There are 13 root servers (server A to M). The root servers will only iterative queries. They would otherwise be the number of requests simply overloaded with the.

Unlike with resolutions designed by server, such as the NetWare Name Service or the Windows Internet Naming Service are mostly on local area networks and are increasingly restricted by the Internet protocol suite displaced.

A resource record ( RR ) is the basic unit of information in the Domain Name System (DNS). He enters into ASCII representation in zone files or in compressed form in DNA transport packets or DNS cache on. Several RR types – so-called pseudo-resource records – are DNS packets transport used.

RR-format zone files

The format shown here refers to the ASCII representation, which is used in zone files. In caches or in transit, a form of identical content, but use compressed. RR types are there numbers 1-255 expressed. The same applies to class and TTL .

ASCII format: <name> [<ttl>] [<class>] <type> <rdata>

• <name> The domain name of the object to which the resource record belongs (optional)
• <ttl> time to live (in seconds). Validity of resource records (optional)
• <class> protocol group to which the resource record belongs (optional)
• <type> describes the type of resource records
• <rdata> (resource data) which describes in detail the Resource Record data (such as an IP address for an A-RR, or a host name for a NS RR)
• <length> length of following data

For some types, there are other fields that are filed directly before <rdata> (see example below: MX). The optional components may be omitted in certain cases. It is then the name server automatically queued up value of this component is used.

The permissible classes

In practice, almost without exception used. The other classes have only historical significance. From BIND servers is sometimes used CH to a name server to publish the version number.

• IN Internet
• CH Chaosnet (rarely used)
• HS Hesiod (rarely used)
• CS CSNET (no longer used)

The main RR types

• A IPv4 address of a host
• AAAA IPv6 address of a host
• AFSDB Resource Record for Cell Database server of the Andrew File System
• A6 A6 resource record of the proceedings for the partial address resolution for IPv6, now obsolete
• CERT resource record for storing certificates (see RFC 4398 )
• CNAME Canonical name for a host (the domain with the RR is an alias)
• DNAME CNAME for similar but complete domains, see RFC 2672
• DNSKEY contains a name assigned to the Public-Key – sparked by DNSSEC KEY from from the 2004 type.
• DS – is the concatenation of DNSSEC signed zones
• GPOS geographic position, out of date
• HINFO Host information ( processor type and operating system )
• ISDN ISDN number is rarely used
• LOC Location
• KEY contains a name associated with the public key – is DNSSEC since 2004 no longer used by
• MB mailbox domain name ( Experimental )
• MD mail destination (no longer in use – will now use MX)
• MF mail forwarder (no longer in use – will now use MX)
• MG mail group member ( Experimental )
• MINFO mailbox or mail list information
• MR Mail rename domain name ( Experimental )
• MX Mail Exchange – the domain responsible for this mail server
• NAPTR Naming Authority Pointer – Expansion of the A Resource Record
• NSAP Network Service Access Point
• NSEC (next secure) concatenated DNS records in DNSSEC signed zones – 2004 from the old types NXT
• NSEC3 (next hashed secure) alternative to NSEC RR without zone enumeration problem (since 2008)
• Null null resource record ( Experimental )
• NS host name of an authoritative name server
• NXT obsolete – was virtually identical to the NSEC resource record being replaced by
• OPT pseudo-RR marked a EDNS Package
• PTR domain name pointer (for the reverse mapping , assign names to IP addresses)
• RP responsible (responsible) person
• RRSIG contains a digital signature (since 2004 of DNSSEC (= DNS Security ) is used and replaced SIG)
• SIG includes a digital signature (date was up in 2004 by DNSSEC (= DNS Security uses))
• SOA start of authority
• SPF Sender Policy Framework
• SRV offered service (Service)
• Sshfp SSH fingerprint, to publish the fingerprints of SSH -bowls, see RFC 4255
• TXT freely definable text, including for Sender Policy Framework (SPF) used
• WKS Well-known service description
• X25 X.25 address is used only rarely

Each name of a domain in the Internet consists of a sequence of points separated by strings. The term top-level domain (of English. top-level domain , top-level field ‘, acronym TLD ) denotes the last name of that episode and is the highest level of name resolution dar. For example, if the complete domain name of a computer or a Web site de.example.com , it corresponds to the right member ( . com ) of the top-level domain of that name.

In the Domain Name System (DNS), the complete name and thus the TLDs also referenced and dissolved, so a unique IP address assigned. The registrar shall do so a database record of the owner of, the Whois queries over the same protocol, similar to a phone book allows.

TLDs are the IANA two main groups and a special case divided into:

• generic TLDs: generic TLD ‘s ( gTLD ‘s), divided into sponsored TLD s ( sTLD s) and unsponsored TLD s ( uTLD s)
• country-specific TLDs: country-code TLD s or ccTLD ‘s
• the infrastructure TLD ( iTLD ) . arpa (special case) and the (never been used) . root

No longer in use are the special cases . BITNET and . uucp .

Country specific TLD names always consist of two letters, general TLD names consist of three or more letters.

A list of top-level domains will all be published on the IANA. See Section Links “Root Zone Database.

Generic top-level domains

The generic top-level domains (gTLDs) are sponsored (sTLD) and non-sponsored (uTLD) Are there. The (much more important) not sponsored domains are under the direct control of ICANN and the Internet Society . The sponsored domains are controlled by independent organizations and funds. These organizations have the right to their own guidelines for the allocation of domain names used. Is one example. Mil This domain is listed by the U.S. military used exclusively.

The by far most used TLD is . com (more than 90 million registered domain names in October 2010 ). It was originally used by U.S. companies, but today it is spread worldwide. The classic in the initial phase of the defined DNS TLDs are shown in bold.

Non-Sponsor domains (uTLD)

Non-Sponsored Top-Level Domains are used by a particular group. They consist of three or more characters and are for a term that distinguishes this group.

Sponsored domains (sTLD)

Sponsored domains (engl. sponsored top-level domain , abbr sTLD ) are specific companies or organizations proposed by, the namespaces under detailed guidelines to operate them and control and enforcement rights also, that the proper and legal use of registered names with the operator should be ensured. For example, the TLD. Aero by SITA sponsored the use of contents of the aviation limited, or the use of. mobi names linked to the fact that the website provider compliance with certain guidelines should ensure that the device-independent use of web- contents are regarded as fundamental, so that, for example mobile phones can display this content.

On 26 June 2008, ICANN decided to relaxing the rules for new sponsored domains. That should apply to domain from the beginning of 2009 anyone own any possible.

Given the liberal rules for awarding the TLD . com , . net , . org and (with minor restrictions) . biz and (more recently) . name are the original meanings of these TLD has largely disappeared. Such a TLD has not necessarily indicate a corresponding use. For example, is actually the non-profit organizations intended for. Org TLD now sometimes used by commercial providers. Continue to use international, non-commercial sites like. Net (or. Org) to either on a country specific TLD, or on spread. Com need to fall back.

Special cases

There are some, mostly historical, special pseudo-domains or domains, and for certain purposes reserved to be set up for various reasons no TLD:

Country-specific top-level domains (ccTLDs)

There are over 200 ccTLDs (cc = country code), while each country is exactly two-letter code (alpha-2) according to ISO 3166 assigned. In addition, there are often their own ccTLDs for dependent territories that are geographically separated from mainland are the most.

Exceptions

• The United Kingdom uses the TLD . uk , although its ISO code is GB (GB, GBR, 826). In addition, the ISO also exceptionally encoding the UK reserved. The TLD . gb is also reserved, but is currently well except for a single registration is not used.
• The United States have, in addition . us nor the TLDs. mil ( military ). gov ( government ) as well. edu (educational institutions).
• The European Union used to. eu ccTLD one , although it is not an independent state. The coding, however, the EU has been ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency exceptional importance of this reserve through. This was done by a special decision on the basis of a perceived practical needs. In contrast to EU countries has neither a three-letter or a three-digit coding. Its member countries continue to hold their own ccTLDs and there are no country-specific subdomains of. Introduced eu.

Changes

• . Dd was for the GDR provided, however, internally at the universities of Jena and Dresden used exclusively. There was no DNS delegation in the root name servers of the IANA, the top-level domain. dd was after the turning through . de of the Federal Republic of Germany replaced.
• . Cs was used for Czechoslovakia used. It was then for the now defunct state union of Serbia and Montenegro provided. Due to continued conflict with existing Web sites and e-mail addresses of the former Czechoslovakia This was apparently not implemented on the servers. Instead it was . yu used further. With the decline in the states and their domains . rs and . me , the matter has settled. In future. Cs no longer needed.
• . Zr for Zaire in 2004 the root servers away from (now . cd ).
• . To the United States Minor Outlying Islands has been deleted 2008th
• . Yu for Yugoslavia was 30 September 2009 resolved (since 30 March 2010 is not out of reach ), since they are the two domain extensions. rs for Serbia and. me for Montenegro has been replaced.

Running out

In addition, some obsolete TLDs for reasons of accessibility still active:

• In Russia is next . ru still . su (Former Soviet Union ) is operated. There are also 18 years after the dissolution of the Soviet Union still new domains under. Su registered ^[13] . These include companies as members of the German Rhein-Sieg-Kreis ( license plate SU).
• East Timor moves from . tp to . tl and operates for an interim period both TLDs.

Unused

Allocated and are not used, mostly for lack of technical infrastructure or lack of political freedom:

• . Eh for Western Sahara ,
• . This for Somalia . The side of the Somali Network Information Center was achieved over several years, but where a sign was only that the political instability of Somalia and the general unavailability of the Internet would not awarded due to domains. SO registry has announced on its website, from 1 2011 new registrations receive April.

Conditions of the allotment

Every country has the right to own procurement guidelines for its domain set. These are by far the majority of the registries situated independently due to technical and legal requirements and needs can differ greatly.

It is for example the French TLD . fr require the domain owner residence or business has its headquarters in France.

In Germany on 23 October 2009 with the allocation of one-and two-digit and only numbers of existing domains . de begun. In the meantime, had to . com domain for at least three characters long, and one of them had to be a letter. From the early days of the Internet, there were three two-digit domains: db.de , hq.de and ix.de . (The long fourth for two-letter domain bb.de scheme was no longer registered for the time.) Volkswagen complained before the Higher Regional Court of Frankfurt am Main on the assignment of domain vw.de , which then lead to the effective date was taken into operation.

In Switzerland , only the cantons a domain with two characters from the official abbreviation is (eg ar.ch , ge.ch , ur.ch , zh.ch ). Next to it by the Swiss Federal Chancellery , the domain ch.ch operated. Apart from these exceptions must domains from at least three characters are Swiss. Exceptions are www.expo.02.ch (for six Swiss national exhibition in 2002 ) and the domain au.ch the town Au in the canton of St. Gallen .

In other cases, the second level with a few given names of possible, the actual name is then used as third-level domain (defined, for example example.co.uk ). An example is the UK uk. -domain, only the following second-level domains can be made:

• . Ac.uk – academic , educational institutions such as universities
• . Co.uk – commercial
• . Gov.uk – government , central government and regional organizations
• . Ltd.uk – limited company
• . Me.uk – presence of individuals
• . Net.uk – ISPs and other network companies
• . Nic.uk – Network Information Center , only for internal network management
• . Nhs.uk – National Health Service , state health system and its institutions
• . Org.uk – non-profit organizations
• . Plc.uk – public limited companies (listed companies)
• . Sch.uk – Schools

In addition, there are some state-used second-level domains like police.uk. , mod.uk. ( Ministry of Defence – Ministry of Defense), library.uk. british- (and bl.uk. – also for the British Library ) or . parliament.uk . These date from an earlier time and enjoy grandfathering.

Misappropriation

In particular, smaller market or those in poverty states their domains, by managing their lending policies are very liberal and apply for the registration of domains active. Here, the domain market is developing into a lucrative business, since the registration fees will be partially set well above the actual costs.

. To

One of the first such states who had registered their domains were free, 1998 Tonga with . to . The response was very good because this time were too many short and concise domains under . com is no longer available, and others had ccTLDs some very strict registration requirements. Also resulted from the ending . to interesting domain names that are nice in the short URLs could use as come.to or go.to . Today is the TLD. To be happy for torrent or warez sites used, among other reasons because the NIC does not allow holders queries, so that these domains can be registered anonymously.

Media domain

. Tv

A well-known foreign ccTLD is used . tv the State Tuvalu , as the Television will be marketed. This company was a private DotTV established that the domain market and on which the nation of Tuvalu is co-owner. This coup brought the tiny country of 50 million U.S. dollar one, the rate of $ 5 million to be paid in annual. Tuvalu domain acknowledges the past even with his own postage stamp. Tuvalu Government procured the money IT infrastructure for the main public institutions and paid the admission fee for the United Nations .

. Fm

Similarly, the ccTLD . fm the Federated States of Micronesia frequently used in the broadcasting sector, for example, when Internet radio last.fm . The abbreviation FM is in the radio for frequency modulation , in the FM radio for use is usually associated with and this is usually.

. In the

The association is an abbreviation for example, some of sites and instant-messaging services (short- IM ) are used, their TLD . in the Isle of Man is registered, such as when multi-protocol client Pidgin ( pidgin.im ).

Other abbreviations

Another special feature is the ccTLD . tk ( Tokelau ), which is often of telecommunications companies (abbreviation TK -business) is abused. . was ( Samoa ) can be a website to be marketed, although such an abbreviation is unusual. Moreover, now use some DJs (disc jockeys) the domain . dj ( Djibouti ) for their Internet presence.

The ccTLD . ag of the island nation of Antigua and Barbuda by the operator in addition to the intended use of targeted companies in Germany applied for to the legal status of a public company ) to clarify AG (. At the same time illustrates this domain, uncertainty, into which one is goes, if an “exotic” Domain registered: the entire registry was suspected power struggles for the TLD 1999-2000 no alternative destinations. for a time German – limited partnerships – Abbreviation KG was in the same way the domain . kg of Kyrgyzstan offered.

One of the newest domains, which experienced a misuse, the . ME domain of Montenegro . With it you can create meaningful domains, such as: love.me , contact.me etc. However, such can most likely very popular domains registered are simply not but be auctioned on the open registration.

Geographical areas

Also, countries or companies whose market TLDs are trying to create a market by abbreviations are invented, in a context set to the address that was not originally given. Sun markets a company domain . la ( Laos ) as the domain for Los Angeles .

Germany

The ccTLD . by ( Belarus ) is for pages with a Bavarian background, and some companies in Bavaria are used. The ccTLD country Liechtenstein . li is used by some companies and private pages from Lindau (Bodensee) used as the operators of the motor vehicle code identifying mark on LI. Similarly, in the space of Münster in North Rhine-Westphalia for the ccTLD of the British overseas territory of Montserrat . ms because this ending and the license plate (MS), applies. The ccTLD of Romania . ro by the city of Rosenheim their website used. Some in Schleswig-Holstein -based company use the ccTLD . sh of St. Helena .

Switzerland

In Switzerland, where the cantons are two-letter abbreviation always ccTLD be partially used with reference to a District of marketing to offers. Sun ccTLD be such as . ag ( Aargau , actually Antigua and Barbuda ), . be ( Bern , actually Belgium ) . sh ( Schaffhausen , actually St. Helena ) . lu ( Lucerne , actually Luxembourg ) or . sg ( St. Gallen , actually Singapore in the respective areas used).

Austria

The ccTLD . st of the island nation of Sao Tome and Principe is often called TLD for the State of Styria misused, as it is abbreviated Sun

Asturias

In the autonomous Spanish region of Asturias , the TLD of the country American Samoa . as often by individuals, companies and authorities used to presence with the name of the region to associate Internet. By city governments in the region, this TLD often used, whereby different communities only a TLD misused to achieve official web pages. Due to the small population of American Samoa in relation to Asturias, the majority of domain holders with this extension from Spain.

Specific uses

Unusual is the use of the domain . nu ( Niue ) for the pages of the Dresden’s cultural magazine , which in the local dialect of Dresden common Nu! for “Yes!” alludes. A similar magnitude is the domain in Sweden and Denmark , as in Sweden as in the Danish nu ‘now’ means. In addition, . se domains were earlier for individuals not eligible for registration.

Also very popular is the ccTLD . cc ( Cocos Islands ). This ccTLD Domains can be registered by anyone. Especially popular is the result of the minimalist ccTLD Whois system, which is the only domain registrar reveals. This operator will remain the domain virtually anonymous.

Since 2008, the ccTLD . sl ( Sierra Leone ) and marketed primarily by supporters of the virtual world Second Life used.

The technical and administrative implementation of a TLD

For each top-level domain is a group of name servers, the entire domain name space that manage the (usually by means of delegation to other servers). The domain-specific name servers are the root name server is reachable via. There is also a central database that all of this TLD located below second-level administrative domains contains information such as name and address of each domain owner. This database can be on the Whois service to be accessed.

For the operation of the server and the database is used by ICANN , an organization responsible for each domain, in Internet terminology, a domain name registry is called. For. Com is the TLD for example, the company VeriSign for. de is the DENIC . Such a registry is also the award of directly subordinate second-level domains responsible for (eg example.com ). This task is often known as registrars, delegated (see also: domain registration ).

For each TLD, there are guidelines for the assignment of second-level domains regulate. These are the websites of the respective registries available on. For some existing TLDs IDN language tables , in which all characters are listed that may be of subdomains used in the award. Thus, for example. Biz and. Org German umlauts allowed. These tables are by the IANA managed and are the sites of the cost of registries.

Alternative DNS root

There are also organizations on the Internet, the alternative name servers operate on the addition to the above, quasi-official, from the ICANN -controlled TLDs other TLDs available. A major disadvantage is that such addresses for traditional Internet users are unreachable. They too are from search engines like Google ignore. Another disadvantage is that the operator of two namespaces can collide, especially when later other top level domains are introduced.

The project OpenNIC tried alternative systems bring together, but considers the ICANN TLDs as a priority and accepts neither conflicting nor private namespaces. Their own TLDs are . glue , . indy , . geek , . zero , . oss and . parody .

Furthermore, there is the operator New.net , the number of additional Top Level Domains offers one, in which their own domains can be reserved free of charge.

An octet (English octet ) is in the computer science and digital technology, the term for an ordered list (a tuple ) of 8 bits .

History and background

As always one octet of 8 bits is, it can thus 2 ⁸ = 256 different states represented. Since modern computer byte size of 8 bits only use almost, it is often synonymous with byte used, which is not totally correct but because byte is the smallest addressable unit stands for, regardless of the number of bits, the representation of different systems are needed for its .

You should not confuse the octet with a sign that in so-called multi-byte characters can consist of multiple octets well.

The basis for today’s standard that a byte consists of eight bits, and that the smallest unit of memory addressing such a byte is a has been, from the company IBM with the S/360 architecture on-7 April 1964 down. Previously bytes in computers were also of 8 bits number of different uses have been with a.

As a measure to specify amount of data is derived from the bit unit bytes , with the proviso that there is 1 byte bits was defined as 8. Especially in standards or in the dial (in the often stop bits , are added, etc.) but often the more accurate term used octet.

In many computers, individual octets are addressed in the main memory, but also the addressing of individual bits , half-octet ( Nibbles ), double octet (16 bit) and larger groups is possible. Today, 32 – and 64-bit machine usual, the 64-bit (four or eight octets) can jointly address and 32.

An octet is 2 ⁸ = 256 different values ​​represent, which can be interpreted differently. One can, for example, is an unsigned integer value ranging from 0 to 255, a signed integer value in the range from -127 to +127 or -128 to +127 (depending on the encoding of negative numbers) or a mark or more sign store. All of these data types are only different interpretations of the same bit pattern. For example corresponds to an octet with integer value 65 in the ASCII encoding of the symbol “A”. In addition to the popular ASCII exist also proprietary character encodings such as EBCDIC which on IBM mainframes used to be.

Frequently octets, the values ​​of in hexadecimal specified, for example the decimal value “65″ as “41 ₁₆ “,” 0×41 “,” $ 41 “or” 41h “, the last three notations indicate to that it is a hexadecimal concerns. Sometimes, the value of an octet as a binary number is given, is usually the bit with the next highest value ( most significant bit , MSB ) and the right with the lowest ( least significant bit , LSB ). The counting of the bit positions usually starts with 0, that is, for example, the third bit is “bit 2″ and stands at the third position from the right.

Example of the spelling of the value 65 (binary 01000001), bit positions and to calculate the decimal value:

Value 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Bit number 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

An octet is in two half-bytes, known as nibbles of 4 bits, divided. If we write it in hexadecimal , so a nibble corresponds to each hexadecimal digit.

Alternative use

In some cases, is also tuple of 3 bits of octet called that goes with it that, with 3 bits, eight different values, that is a octal -digit, can be represented. This name became the example of the three access permission bits (read, write, execute) in Unix -like file system used (see chmod ). In more recent descriptions of chmod term is the longer but not used to an 8-bit octet, to avoid confusion with.